Go anywhere that vaguely human-shaped pieces of cloth are sold, and you'll hear a lot of women complaining about clothes that don't fit. And for good reason: Not only do women's clothing manufacturers pay no attention at all to sizing standards but the average catwalk model is between 5-foot-9 and 5-foot-11, well above the height of the average American woman. Trends are initially designed to sit right on the tall models who tower over everyone at fashion shows; they're not designed to suit the body type of Joanna Average American. But the one upside of that is that women's clothing should fit freakishly tall people of the female persuasion, at least if those freakishly tall people are also catwalk-model skinny.
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Nope! See, it turns out that mainstream women's clothing designers, perhaps while on a decades-long cocaine bender, have decided that if a women's shirt or pair of pants gets longer, they must always get wider as well, like different-size soda cups at McDonald's. So, a larger pants size might do well at reaching to the bottom of your freakishly long legs, but it will assume that your hip and waist have expanded as well. Of course, the human body is not a soda cup, so this means that most tall, skinny women have to choose between "Nerd in an '80s Movie" too-short pants or falling-down pants that make you look like you just deflated.
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Controlling shrinkage cracking historically has been addressed by limiting the moisture content of units at the time of placement in the wall and indirectly incorporated the effects of variations in temperature and cement carbonation as well as drying shrinkage. In 2000 however, due to problems associated with maintaining moisture controlled units (Type I) in that state until placement in the wall, moisture controlled units (and Type designations) were removed from ASTM C90 (ref. 4).
The engineered criteria is based on a Crack Control Coefficient to accommodate internal volume changes. Once the internal movement due to volume change has been estimated, the designer can control crack width to a maximum value by 1) limiting the distance between control joints when used in combination with a minimum amount of horizontal reinforcement or 2) incorporating a predetermined, higher amount of horizontal reinforcement (when needed for structural purposes) to limit crack width without the use of control joints.
The Crack Control Coefficient (CCC) is an indicator of anticipated wall movement. Concrete masonry unit shortening per unit length is estimated by including the possible combined effects of movement due to drying shrinkage, carbonation shrinkage and contraction due to temperature reduction. The Crack Control Coefficient value itself is determined by summing the coefficients of these three properties for a specific concrete masonry unit. It is a function of unit mix design and production/curing methods.
The total linear drying shrinkage is determined in accordance with Standard Test Method for Linear Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units, ASTM C426 (ref. 5). ASTM C 90 (ref. 4) limits total linear drying shrinkage of concrete masonry units to 0.00065 in./in. (mm/mm). Note that this is based a saturated condition (immersed in water for 48 hours). In the field, units will probably be no higher than 70% of saturation. Therefore, the highest realistic drying shrinkage potential realized in the field will be around 0.00045 in./in. (mm/mm) or 0.54 in. in 100 ft (13.7 mm in 30.48 m). It for this reason that the Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1) stipulates the use of only 50% of the total linear drying shrinkage determined in accordance with ASTM C426 (ref. 5) for design.
Thermal coefficients for concrete masonry units typically range from 0.0000025 to 0.0000055 in./in./F (0.0000045 to 0.0000099 mm/mm/C) (refs. 4 and 5). For design purposes, the value of 0.000004 in./in./F (0.0000081 mm/mm/C) be used as outlined in the Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1). Based on a temperature change of 70 F (38.9 C), this would translate to a thermal contraction value of 0.00028 in./in. (mm/mm) or 0.34 in. in 100 ft (8.5 mm in 30.48 m).
When a crack is formed, tension in the masonry is released. This masonry tension is transferred to the reinforcement at the time of crack formation. Therefore, reinforcement should be sized such that the resulting tensile force in the reinforcement does not exceed the yield strength of the steel. This keeps the steel within the elastic range and minimizes the crack width to a point where control joints are not necessary in the design.
Ft = average tensile strength of masonry. A vertical crack would pass through a head joint and then a block in alternate fashion. The tensile strength of typical masonry units is 200 psi (1.38 MPa) and the tensile strength of a typical head joint is 25 psi (0.172 MPa). Average tensile strength is, therefore, 225 psi / 2 or 112 psi (0.772 MPa).fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement= 60,000 psi (413 MPa)
When utilizing these details and the wall segments on either side of openings are designed to resist the lateral loads applied directly to them plus those transferred from the opening enclosure, shear transfer devices such as preformed gaskets (see TEK 10-2C, ref. 3) are not necessary. However, some designers still incorporate them to limit the relative movement between the two panels on either side of a control joint thereby reducing the stress on the joint sealant and providing longer life. 2ff7e9595c
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